Kevin MacDonald, Ph.D.
CSULB, Department of Psychology
Psychology 463 -- Moral Development
Kohlberg's Stage Model of Moral Reasoning
Level I: Preconventional
Stage 1: Heteronomous morality ("Morality derives from power and authority.)
Social Perspective:Children cannot consider more than one person's perspective. They tend to be egocentric, assuming that their feelings are shared by everyone.
Moral Content: This stage is equivalent to Piaget's moral realism. Evaluations of morality are absolute and focus on physical and objective characteristics of a situation. Morality is defined only by authority figures, whose rules must be obeyed.
Stage 2: Individualism and instrumental purpose ("Morality means looking out for yourself.')
Social Perspective: Children understand that people have different needs and points of view, although they cannot yet put them-selves in the other's place. Other people are assumed to serve their own self-interests.
Moral Content: Moral behavior is seen as valuable if it serves one's own interests. Children obey rules or cooperate with peers with an eye toward what they will get in return. Social interactions are viewed as deals and arrangements that involve concrete gains.
Level II Conventional
Stage 3: Interpersonal conformity ("Morality means doing what makes you liked.')
Social Perspective: People can view situations from another's perspective. They understand that an agreement between two people can be more important than each individual's self-interest.
Moral Content: The focus is on conformity to what most people believe is right behavior. Rules should be obeyed so that peo-ple you care about will approve of you. Interpersonal relations are based on the Golden Rule ("Do unto others...').
Stage 4: Law and order ('What's right is what's legal.')
Social Perspective: People view morality from the perspective of the social system and what is necessary to keep it working. Individual needs are not considered more important than maintaining the social order.
Moral Content: Morality is based on strict adnerence to laws and on performing one's duty. Rules are seen as applying to everyone equally and as being the correct means of resolving interpersonal conflicts.
Level III Postconventional
Stage 5: Social contract ("Human rights take precedence over laws.')
Social Perspective: People take the perspective of all individuals living in a social system. They understand that not everyone . shares their own values and ideas but that all have an equal right to exist
Moral Content: Morality is based on protecting each individual's human rights. The emphasis is on maintaining a social system that will do so. Laws are created to protect, rather than restrict, individual freedoms, and they should be changed as necessary. Behavior that harms society is wrong, even if it is not illegal.
Source: Based on information from L Kohlberg, "Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Development Approach: 1976. In T. LikoniJ (Ed.), Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social 15sues, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
PARADOX OF ALTRUISM: SELFLESS BEHAVIOR IS PROBLEMATIC
BUT KIN SELECTION CAN EVOLVE: BY HELPING RELATIVES ONE
HELPS ONESELF
RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM (RECIPROCITY) IS NOT PROBLEMATIC
RECIPROCITY IS THE FUNDAMENTAL RULE OF ALL
VOLUNTARY HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS APART FROM
RELATIONSHIPS WITH RELATIVES, AND ESPECIALLY
CLOSE FAMILY MEMBERS.
COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS: RECIPROCITY IMPLIES
SELF-INTEREST IS A FUNDAMENTAL FEATURE OF
HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
CONTRASTS BETWEEN COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL AND EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHES TO MORALITY
COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL:
1.) COGNITION PRIMARY FOCUS; BEHAVIOR DEPENDS ON
STAGE, AND INDIVIDUALS BECOME LESS SELF-
INTERESTED AS THEY REACH HIGHER STAGES
2.) FORMAL, UNIVERSAL STAGES OF REASONING
KOHLBERG'S STAGES
EVOLUTIONARY:
1.) BEHAVIOR IS PRIMARY FOCUS; COGNITIONS
RATIONALIZE SELF-INTERESTED BEHAVIOR,
AND AS WE MOVE THROUGH STAGES WE BECOME
MORE SOPHISTICATED AT RATIONALIZING OUR
SELF-INTEREST.
2.) REAL PROBLEMS CREATIVELY ENCOUNTERED.
EVOLUTIONARY PREDICTION:
CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR IS SELF-INTERESTED
A.) SELF-INTEREST PRESENT IN BASE-LINE CONDITIONS OF
DONATION EXPERIMENTS, ITS PRESENCE ASSUMED AND
UNEXPLAINED
B.) DAMON'S STUDY: CHILDREN DIVIDE CANDY AFTER
MAKING BRACELETS
1.) MOST BRACELETS; 2.) PRETTIEST BRACELETS;
3.) NICEST KID; 4.) YOUNG KID.
TEND TO GIVE MORE TO THEIR OWN POSITION; WORSE
WHEN YOUNGER
C.) DONATION CAN BE INCREASED BY REINFORCEMENT, BUT
THIS ASSUMES SELF-INTEREST; SOME LEARNING
THEORISTS HAVE THEREFORE DENIED ALTRUISM
ALTOGETHER
1.) BASELINE RATES OF DONATION OFTEN LOW:
ONE STUDY: C WINS 12 NICKELS, DONATES
AVERAGE OF 0.57 TO CHARITY
2.) MODELING AND/OR EXHORTATION IMPROVES
DONATING, BUT ONLY TO 3.62/12.
3.) BACKSLIDING OCCURS OVER TIME
4.) OLDER CHILDREN SHARE MORE, BUT USUALLY ONLY
WHEN IT IS MADE CLEAR THAT THEY WERE
PARTICIPATING IN AN EXPERIMENT AND THE
EXPERIMENTER WAS WATCHING; OLDER
CHILDREN ARE MORE AWARE OF SOCIAL PRESSURE
5.) DONATION COSTS LITTLE; LABORATORY STUDIES
MAY EXAGGERATE EXTENT OF REAL ALTRUISM.
D.) PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY TO REASON AND BEHAVE IN A
SELF-INTERESTED MANNER IN REAL LIFE THAN IN
HYPOTHETICAL SITUATIONS
1.) IN DAMON'S STUDY CHILDREN WERE MORE GENEROUS WHEN
ASKED HOW THEY WOULD DIVIDE CANDY IN A
HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION THAN IN A SITUATION
WITH REAL CANDY
2.) NORMA HAAN: HIGH LEVEL, FORMAL REASONING OCCURRED
IN PLEASANT GAMES; IN GAMES WHERE STATUS AND
POWER WERE AT STAKE, REASONING WAS AT LOWER
KOHLBERGIAN LEVEL, LESS FORMAL
THEREFORE REAL COSTS AND BENEFITS ARE IMPORTANT
3.) LOWER LEVEL OF REASONING OCCURS IF PROTAGONIST
IS SELF, MOTHER OR CHILD INSTEAD OF HEINZ
THEREFORE, TYPE OF RELATIONSHIP MATTERS; WE TEND TO FAVOR
SELF AND RELATIVES, AS EXPECTED BY KIN SELECTION THEORY
E.) THE RELATION BETWEEN MORAL REASONING AND MORAL
BEHAVIOR IS VERY TENUOUS.
MILGRAM EXPERIMENT: 25% OF STAGE 6 INDIVIDUALS
CONTINUED TO SHOCK FOR THE ENTIRE SERIES
DRUG STUDY: SUBJECT SAYS HE IS UNDER DRUGS AND
ASKS FOR HELP: ONLY 20% OF STAGE 5
INDIVIDUALS OFFERED ASSISTANCE; 73%
PROVIDED INFORMATION
STAGE 5 INDIVIDUALS DISAGREE ABOUT PROPER MORAL
CHOICE; THEREFORE, BEING IN A STAGE IS NO
GUARANTEE OF ANY PARTICULAR BEHAVIOR
F.) MORAL REASONING OFTEN JUSTIFIES SELF-INTEREST:
LAWYERS ARE OFTEN VERY GOOD AT MORAL REASONING,
BUT....
CAROL GILLIGAN: REASONING ABOUT ABORTION WAS
CREATIVE AND EMPHASIZED THE WOMEN'S
INTERESTS IN CAREERS AND RELATIONSHIPS
WITH PARENTS, BOYFRIENDS, HUSBANDS, ETC.
AGGRESSION: A MULTIVARIATE, MULTI-LEVEL PHENOMENON
1.) BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION:
a.) HORMONES:
TESTORSTERONE ASSOCIATED WITH AGGRESSION
IN 15 TO 17-YEAR-OLD BOYS; ASSOCIATED WITH
IRRITABILITY (LOW THREHSOLD FOR NEGATIVE
AFFECTIVE AROUSAL)
TESTOSTERONE AND AGGRESSION IN ANIMALS: THE
PRENATAL EFFECT OF TESTOSTERONE ON MALES
b.) TEMPERAMENT SYSTEMS
AGGRESSION AS A SUBSYSTEM WITHIN THE GO SYSTEM
EMOTIONALITY: PRONENESS TO ANGER
IRRITABILITY
NEGATIVE ASSOCIATION WITH STOP SYSTEM,
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS SYSTEM, AND
AFFECTIONAL SYSTEM, BUT
COMPARTMENTALIZATION POSSIBLE
2.) ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION
a.) MODELING, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
b.) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: AGGRESSION IS REINFORCED
BECAUSE IT ELIMINATES AN AVERSIVE STIMULUS
COERCIVE FAMILY PROCESSES AMONG AGGRESSIVE
CHILDREN
c.) AVERSIVE STIMULATION:
1.) EVENT------>ANGER, FRUSTRATION, NEGATIVE AFFECT
NATURAL CLUE
E. G., TAIL PINCH, SHOCK, HEAT
2.) EVENT------>COGNITIVE INTERPRETIVE PROCESS
IN TERMS OF INTERESTS AND GOALS
E. G., BOSS SAYS YOU'RE FIRED
ANGER, FRUSTRATION, NEGATIVE AFFECT
AGGRESSION AS A PREPOTENT RESPONSE TO FRUSTRATING,
ANGER-INDUCING EVENTS, BUT OTHER RESPONSES
POSSIBLE; RESPONSE DEPENDS PARTLY ON TEMPERAMENT,
PARTLY ON ASSESSMENT OF COSTS/BENEFITS, ETC.
SOCIALIZATION WITH AVERSIVE EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH
AGGRESSION: E. G., CHILD ABUSE, TRIBAL SOCIETIES
ELABORATING THE NEURAL BASIS OF THE AGGRESSION
SUBSYSTEM VIA SOCIALIZATION WITH AVERSIVE
STIMULATION:
3. ) COGNITIVE BIASES AND AGGRESSION
THE ATTRIBUTIONAL BIASES OF AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN
4.) CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION:
a.) SCARCE RESOURCES AND AGGRESSION
b.) SOCIETAL LEVEL INFLUENCES: SOCIALIZING
AGGRESSION AS PUBLIC POLICY
ANCIENT SPARTA, NAZI GERMANY
EFFECTS OF AGGRESSION: AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN TEND TO BE
REJECTED BY OTHER CHILDREN
CAIRNS ET AL: MANY AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN HAVE NETWORK
OF FRIENDS WHO ARE SIMILAR TO THEMSELVES
CONTROLLING AGGRESSION:
1.) CATHARSIS?
2.) OFTEN ATTEMPT TO FACILITATE COMPETING RESPONSES:
a.) EMPATHY AND PERSPECTIVE TAKING
b.) TRAINING NON-IMPULSIVE RESPONDING:
THE "THINK ALOUD" PROGRAM
