Kevin MacDonald, Ph.D.

CSULB, Department of Psychology

Psychology 463: Attachment and Its Relation to the Affectional System

DETERMINING ATTACHMENT STATUS:

1. STRANGE SITUATION

2. REUNION EPISODES ARE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT for scoring

3. CATEGORIES OF ATTACHMENT:

A. INSECURE AVOIDANT (A BABIES):
OFTEN DO NOT CRY MUCH AT SEPARATION;
DO NOT SEEK PROXIMITY AND ACTIVELY AVOID THE MOTHER AT
REUNION;
DO NOT RESIST CONTACT IF MOTHER INITIATES IT;
DO NOT CRY MUCH AT REUNION

B. SECURE ATTACHMENT (B BABIES):
ACTIVELY SEEK PROXIMITY AND CONTACT AT REUNION;
OFTEN DISTRESSED DURING SEPARATION, BUT CALM DOWN QUICKLY AT
REUNION

C. INSECURE AMBIVALENT (C BABIES)
VERY UPSET AND DISTRESSED DURING SEPARATION;
ACTIVELY SEEK PROXIMITY AND CONTACT AT REUNION;
RESIST CONTACT AT REUNION, OFTEN SHOWING ANGER;
CONTINUE CRYING AT REUNION; THEY DO NOT CALM DOWN EASILY AT
REUNION

ATTACHMENT THEORY

1.) LEARNING THEORY:
a.) OLD VIEW: LOVE AS GENERALIZED CONDITIONED RESPONSE;
MOTHER SATISFIES BASIC DRIVES FOR FOOD, ETC.,
BABY THEREFORE DEVELOPS POSITIVE ATTITUDES
LOVE (ALSO FREUDIAN);
ETHOLOGICAL CRITIQUE: HARLOW'S MONKEY STUDY

b.) MORE RECENTLY: MOTHERS AND BABIES AS MUTUALLY
REINFORCING, INCLUDING PLEASURE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
ETHOLOGICAL CRITIQUE:
1.) THE THEORY IS INCOMPLETE BECAUSE IT DOESN'T
EXPLAIN WHY SOCIAL INTERACTIONS ARE SO PLEASURABLE
IN THE FIRST PLACE
2.) THEORY CAN'T EXPLAIN ATTACHMENT IN ABUSED INFANTS

2.) COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL MODELS:
a.) ATTACHMENT AS INVOLVING COGNITIVE MODEL (SCHEMA)
OF "MOMMY & ME";
IF SEPARATED, BABY BECOMES FEARFUL AND DISTRESSED BECAUSE OF DISCREPANCY WITH SCHEMA OF 'MOMMY & ME'
b.) ATTACHMENT INVOLVES INTERNAL WORKING MODEL
OF MOTHER'S TYPICAL BEHAVIOR; (IWM EXPLAINED BELOW.)

CRITIQUE: CAN'T ACCOUNT FOR THE AFFECTIVE INTENSITY
OF ATTACHMENT PHENOMENA (WHY NOT DEVELOP SUCH
SCHEMAS ABOUT BOOKS OR TOYS? WHY SHOULD VIOLATING A SCHEMA OF "MOMMY AND ME" WHEN MOM LEAVES RESULT IN SUCH INTENSE DYSPHORIA, BUT VIOLATION OF OTHER SCHEMAS IS NO BIG DEAL.


ETHOLOGICAL THEORY OF ATTACHMENT: JOHN BOWLBY

A HYBRID THEORY:
(1) BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
(2) LEARNING
(3) COGNITIVE SCHEMES

* * * * BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS * * * *

1.) ATTACHMENT AS AN ADAPTATION
ADAPTATION = A BEHAVIOR OR MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURE DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION IN ORDER TO PERFORM A PARTICULAR FUNCTION

FUNCTION OF ATTACHMENT IS TO PROVIDE PROTECTION FOR HELPLESS
INFANTS.

ATTACHMENT IS AN ADAPTATION DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION TO KEEP THE BABY CLOSE TO THE MOTHER AS A SOURCE OF PROTECTION; IT IS A PROXIMITY MAINTAINING SYSTEM

2.) ETHOLOGICAL IDEA OF 'NATURAL CLUE' = AN INNATE CONNECTION BETWEEN A STIMULUS AND AN AFFECTIVE (EVALUATIVE) RESPONSE

STIMULUS --> AFFECTIVE, EVALUATIVE RESPONSE
S -->R+ (CONTACT COMFORT, AFFECTIONATE TOUCHING, MUTUAL GAZING
AND SMILING) SWEET TASTES

S --> R - (MOTHER ABSENT; STRANGER PRESENT), BITTER TASTES
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE STIMULUS AND THE AFFECTIVE
RESPONSE IS INNATE, UNLEARNED; BABIES COME INTO THE WORLD
WITH LIKES AND DISLIKES

3.) MOTHER AND BABY ARE BIOLOGICALLY PROGRAMMED FOR SOCIAL
INTERACTION
a.) BABIES' BEHAVIORS FOR MAINTAINING CONTACT: CRYING,
LOCOMOTION, "MOLDING TO MOTHER'S BODY";
b.) FOR FACILITATING INTERACTION: APPEARANCE OF BABY, SMILING,
VOCALIZING, MAKING EYE CONTACT

SOCIAL INTERACTION IS INNATELY PLEASURABLE FOR MOTHER AND BABY
(INVOLVES NATURAL CLUES)
 
 

* * * * COGNITIVE AND LEARNING ASPECTS * * * *

1.) MOTHER AS SECURE BASE FOR EXPLORATION:

THE SET POINT: CHANGES WITH DEVELOPMENT CHANGES WITH
SITUATION
 
 
 
 

MOTHER WITHIN SET POINT: BABY EXPLORES
 
 
 
 

MOTHER EXCEEDS SET POINT: ATTACHMENT BEHAVIORS TRIGGERED, EXPLORATION CEASES


DISCRETE SYSTEMS IDEA: ATTACHMENT SYSTEM INTERACTS WITH

THE EXPLORATION SYSTEM, THE PLAY SYSTEM, AND OTHER SYSTEMS.

IF SAFE, THEN PLAY, EXPLORE

IF STRANGER IS PRESENT, THEN STOP PLAY, LOOK FOR MOTHER

IF HUNGRY, STOP PLAY AND EXPLORATION, SEEK FOOD

2.) INTERNAL WORKING MODEL (IWM) OF MOTHER = A MODEL (SCHEMA)

OF WHAT MOTHER IS LIKE

a.) BUILT UP FROM EXPERIENCE (LEARNING)

b.) EMPHASIS ON SENSITIVITY AND RESPONSIVITY

c.) RESULTS IN A MODEL OF FUTURE RELATIONSHIPS; RESISTANT TO
CHANGE

IWM FOR A (AVOIDANT) CHILD: PEOPLE ARE NOT AVAILABLE WHEN I NEED HELP

IWM FOR B (sECURE) CHILD: PEOPLE WILL BE SENSITIVE AND RESPONSIVE
WHEN I NEED HELP

IWM FOR C (AMBIVALENT, RESISTANT) CHILD: PEOPLE ARE UNRELIABLE WHEN I NEED HELP; SOMETIMES THEY ARE RESPONSIVE, SOMETIMES NOT.
 
 

****** EVOLUTIONARILY EXPECTED ENVIRONMENT******

CHILD IS BORN WITH EXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT.
IF EXPECTATIONS MET, THEN THE CHILD IS HAPPY, DEVELOPMENT IS NORMAL
IF EXPECTATIONS ARE NOT MET, THEN THE CHILD IS UNHAPPY, DEVELOPMENT IS PATHOLOGICAL

THE BIOLOGY OF ATTACHMENT IS UNIVERSAL (NORMATIVE) (SPECIES-TYPICAL), BUT ATTACHMENT STATUS IS THE RESULT OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION (IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT)


 
 

*****ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS*****

THE ENVIRONMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTEDNESS (EEA) IS THE ENVIRONMENT THAT HUMANS EVOLVED IN AND WHICH PRESENTED THE
PROBLEMS SOLVED BY OUR ADAPTATIONS.

(E.G., THE HUMAN EEA INCLUDED ENVIRONMENTS WITH PREDATORS AND OTHER DANGERS TO INFANTS. ATTACHMENT EVOLVED IN ORDER TO DEAL WITH THESE PROBLEMS. IT SOLVED THE PROBLEM BY MAKING THE BABY WANT TO STAY CLOSE TO MOM.


SENSITIVE PERIODS FOR ATTACHMENT

ISOLATION STUDIES WITH RHESUS MACAQUES: ISOLATION FOR THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF LIFE RESULTS IN "SUICIDALLY" AGGRESSIVE ANIMALS. FEMALES WHO ARE ISOLATED BECOME ABUSIVE MOTHERS

HOWEVER, THERE ARE SPECIES DIFFERENCES: CRAB-EATING MACAQUES AND WOLVES SHOW MINIMAL DYSFUNCTION AS A RESULT OF ISOLATION.

THE TIZARD ORPHANAGE STUDY: AVERAGE 1 DIFFERENT
CAREGIVER/MONTH AFTER ADOPTION AT AGES 2-4), OBSERVED AT AGE 8:
1.) MORE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS--DISOBEDIENCE, LYING, REJECTED BY
OTHER CHILDREN;

2.) "AFFECTIONLESS PSYCHOPATHY"--SUPERFICIAL OVERFRIENDLINESS
TOWARD ADULTS


MONOTROPY VERSUS MULTIPLE ATTACHMENTS

THE IDEA OF AN ATTACHMENT HIERARCHY

INDEPENDENCE OF ATTACHMENT STATUS WITH MOTHERS AND FATHERS

ISSUES IN ATTACHMENT RESEARCH:
1.) ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CAREGIVER CHARACTERISTICS
AND ATTACHMENT STATUS:
SENSITIVE, RESPONSIVE, AFFECTIONATE CAREGIVING
ASSOCIATED WITH SECURE ATTACHMENT;
CHILD ABUSE IS ASSOCIATED WITH INSECURE ATTACHMENT

2.) STABILITY:
DEPENDS ON SITUATION:
a.) LESS IF THERE IS STRESS OR OTHER SOURCES OF CHANGE

b.) INSTABILITY CAN RESULT IN 'RENEGOTIATION' OF ATTACHMENT
STATUS

3.) PREDICTIVE VALIDITY:
a.) PRESCHOOL: SOCIAL COMPETENCE, POSITIVE AFFECT,
COMPLIANCE; "EGO RESILIENT" = ADAPTABLE AND
FLEXIBLE IN CHANGING CIRCUMSTANCES
b.) LATER CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE: CLOSER FRIENDSHIPS

c.) AVOIDANT INFANTS MORE LIKELY TO BE AGGRESSIVE


TEMPERAMENT AND ATTACHMENT:
a.) KAGAN: BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION SYSTEM EXPLAINS
VARIATION IN ATTACHMENT CLASSIFICATION
b.) OTHER SYSTEMS? SOCIABILITY/POSITIVE EMOTIONALITY,
REACTIVITY

DIMENSIONS OF PARENTING:

HIGH
 
 
 
 
 
 

PERMISSIVE/INDULGENT AUTHORITATIVE
 
 

LOW HIGH

CONTROL/STANDARDS
 
 
 

NEGLECTFUL/INDIFFERENT AUTHORITARIAN
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

LOW

WARMTH (INTERNALIZED MOTIVATION)

CORRELATES OF PARENTING TYPES:
PARENTAL TYPE CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR
_____________________________________________________________________

AUTHORITATIVE PARENT CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR


FIRM ENFORCEMENT OF RULES ENERGETIC, FRIENDLY
CONFRONTS DISOBEDIENCE GOOD PEER RELATIONS
SHOWS PLEASURE AT CHILD'S ACCEPTS ADULT VALUES
CONSTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR ACHIEVEMENT-ORIENTED
CONSIDERS CHILD'S WISHES AND
OPINIONS
WARM, INVOLVED, RESPONSIVE
EXPECTS MATURE, AGE-
APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR
FAMILY ACTIVITIES
EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS

AUTHORITARIAN PARENT

RULES RIGIDLY ENFORCED FEARFUL, APPREHENSIVE
CONFRONTS DISOBEDIENCE SHY
SHOWS ANGER AND ALTERNATES BETWEEN
DISPLEASURE AGGRESSION
VIEWS CHILD AS EVIL AND WITHDRAWAL
HARSH, PUNITIVE DISCIPLINE PASSIVELY HOSTILE,
GUILEFUL
NO FAMILY ACTIVITIES DOES NOT ACCEPT
NO EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS PARENTAL VALUES

PERMISSIVE-INDULGENT PARENTS

RULES NOT ENFORCED NON-COMPLIANT WITH ADULTS
YIELDS TO CHILD COERCION, LOW IN SELF-RELIANCE
WHINING LOW IN ACHIEVEMENT
INCONSISTENT DISCIPLINE STRIVING
FEW DEMANDS FOR MATURE, LACK SELF-CONTROL
INDEPENDENT BEHAVIOR AGGRESSIVE, IMPULSIVE
MODERATE WARMTH
HIDES ANNOYANCE WITH DOMINEERING
CHILD'S BEHAVIOR DOES NOT ACCEPT PARENT
GLORIFIES FREE EXPRESSION VALUES

NEGLECTFUL/INDIFFERENT PARENT 

MINIMIZE COSTS OF PARENTING REJECT ADULT VALUES
UNINVOLVED WITH CHILDREN PEER GROUP orientation
FOCUS ON OWN NEEDS
FAIL TO MONITOR CHILDREN'S DELINQUENCY
ACTIVITIES OR IMPULSIVITY
SCHOOL PERFORMANCE AGGRESSION
PARENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY ALIENATED FROM FAMILY
(DEPRESSION, DRUG USE) POOR SCHOOL
ACHIEVEMENT
PARENT'S DISLIKE FRIENDS DRUG AND ALCOHOL USE
PRECOCIOUS SEXUALITY

"PART OF THE CHALLENGE IS TO TEACH CHILDREN THE RULES.
PART IS TO HELP THEM GAIN GRATIFICATION BY OBEYING THE RULES"

WARMTH AS A MOTIVATOR:
INTRINSIC VERSUS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN PARENTING

HOW WARMTH MOTIVATES:
WARM PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP AS MUTUALLY REWARDING
CHILD IN WARM PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP THEREFORE
VALUES RELATIONSHIP AND BEHAVES IN A MANNER WHICH PARENT
APPROVES;
CHILD THUS ACCEPTS ADULT VALUES, IS COMPLIANT,
CHILD VALUES PARENTAL APPROVAL;

AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING: PARENT HAS STANDARDS,
CHILD HAS INTERNAL MOTIVATION TO CONFORM TO THE STANDARDS

INDULGENT/PERMISSIVE PARENTS FAIL TO SET STANDARDS;
CHILDREN MORE DRAWN TO THE PEER WORLD

AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS HAVE STANDARDS, BUT MOTIVATION
IS EXTERNAL

NEGLECTFUL/INDIFFERENT PARENTS: NO STANDARDS, NO
MOTIVATION; STRONG PULL TO PEER WORLD
WARMTH AS A REWARD SYSTEM


WARMTH AS A PERSONALITY DIMENSION (SYSTEM): THE HUMAN
AFFECTIONAL SYSTEM

COLD OR HOSTILE PARENTS WARM PARENTS
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

WARM PARENTING RESULTS IN MAKING CHILD MORE
SENSITIVE TO REWARD VALUE OF POSITIVE SOCIAL
INTERACTION: SYSTEM-SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

ANALOGY WITH EFFECTS OF EXPERIENCE ON NERVE CELLS:
STIMULATION RESULTS IN ELABORATION OF NEURAL NETWORKS
LACK OF STIMULATION RESULTS IN ATROPHY


THE COMPARTMENTALIZATION OF AFFECTIVE RELATIONSHIPS:

INDEPENDENT PERSONALITY SYSTEMS INFLUENCE RELATIONSHIPS
1.) AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT

2.) MULTIPLE PERSONALITY DISORDER

INTENSE ATTACHMENTS TEND TO BE SPECIFIC AND
DISCRIMINATING RATHER THAN GENERALIZED

EVOLUTION OF THE NUCLEAR FAMILY

EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS IN PARENTING:
1.) PRIMITIVE MAMMALIAN PATTERN: LOW INVESTMENT:
MANY YOUNG, LARGE LITTERS, SHORT LIFESPAN, SMALL BRAINS
COMPARED TO BODY SIZE, SHORT PERIOD OF DEPENDENCE
ON PARENTS; MALES NOT INVOLVED IN PARENTING:
MOTHER AND OFFSPRING IS FAMILY UNIT

2.) HIGH INVESTMENT:
FEW YOUNG, LONG LIFESPAN, LARGE BRAINS, LONG PERIOD OF
DEPENDENCE ON PARENTS, HIGH LEVEL OF PLASTICITY AND
LEARNING ABILITY, COMPETITIVE ENVIRONMENT,
MALE INVOLVEMENT IN PARENTING


WARMTH AS A MECHANISM FOR FACILITATING MALE INVOLVEMENT

DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENT REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES

LOW INVESTMENT HIGH INVESTMENT

A. FAMILY CONTEXT
MARITAL DISCORD SPOUSAL HARMONY
SINGLE PARENTING PATERNAL COMMITMENT
NEGLECTFUL PARENTING
SIBLING REARING

B. CHILDREARING IN INFANCY/EARLY CHILDHOOD

HARSH, REJECTING, WARM, RESPONSIVE
INSENSITIVE STIMULATING
UNSTIMULATING
NO PARENT-CHILD PLAY PARENT-CHILD PLAY

C. PSYCHOLOGICAL/BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT

INSECURE ATTACHMENT SECURE ATTACHMENT
MISTRUSTFUL INTERNAL
WORKING MODEL RECIPROCALLY REWARDING
OPPORTUNISTIC INTERPERSONAL STYLE
INTERPERSONAL STYLE

D. SOMATIC DEVELOPMENT

EARLY LATER
MATURATION/PUBERTY MATURATION/PUBERTY

E. REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY

EARLIER SEXUAL ACTIVITY LATER SEXUAL ACTIVITY
UNSTABLE PAIR BONDS STABLE PAIR BONDS
LOW INVESTMENT HIGH INVESTMENT
PARENTING PARENTING

The following link is to a paper of mine on the differences between security of attachment and love.
MacDonald, K. B. (1999). Love and Security of Attachment as Two Independent Systems
Underlying Intimate Relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(4), 482-495.

                                                  WARMTH                               Security of ATTACHMENT

Assessment                                 Observation, Questionnaire        Strange Situation
 

Emotions                                     Love, Sympathy, Empathy         Felt SecurityAnxiety

Function                                       Pair-bonding, Nurturance,         Protection
                                                    Investment in Children     Proximity Maintenance

Mechanism                                    Physiological reward system     IWM (Cognitive)

Environmental Influences                Parental warmth      Sensitivity & Responsiveness

Heritable                                        YES                                        NO(Temperament may influence)

FFM (Five Factor Model)              Yes, Factor II                           NO

Sex Differences                             YES                                          NO

Distribution Among Primates        Pair-bonding rare                         Very common