Kevin MacDonald, Ph.D.
CSULB, Department of Psychology
Psychology 361
Lecture Notes I--Vasta
WHY STUDY CHILDREN?
- Children change so rapidly compared to us adults.
- Long range influences on adult behavior: As the twig is bent, so grows the tree.
- Insights into complex adult processes
- Applied Value
- Interesting Subject Matter
DEVELOPMENT is defined as including:
- CUMULATIVE CHANGE
- ORDERLY
- DIRECTED (TELEOLOGICAL)
TWO QUESTIONS:
(1) HOW DO WE DEVELOP?
BASIC DESCRIPTION AND OBSERVATION;
E.G., CHANGES IN CHILDREN'S PLAY FROM SOLITARY PLAY TO
PARALLEL PLAY TO PLAYING GAMES WITH RULES
(2) WHY DO WE DEVELOP? WHAT ARE THE UNDERLYING PROCESSES?
E.G., NATURE/NURTURE CONTROVERSY
SCIENCE AND HUMAN INTERESTS: Scientists see children through the lenses of their theories. Scientists are often not disinterested observers of children; they are often influenced by:
a.) Political beliefs e.g., a leftist egalitarian bias'everyone is born with the same potential; or a conservative bias toward saying that science supports the rationality of traditional sex roles.
b.) Ethnic agendas: e.g., some scientific issues, such as whether there are racial differences in intelligence, have political implications. This is why books like The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray are so controversial.
c.) Career goals: e.g., doing research that is likely to be funded by government grants;
doing research that is likely to lead to tenure. It's a bad idea for an assistant professor to begin focus his or her research on politically incorrect research.
d.) Moral agendas: e.g., many developmental psychologists want to help children; these
people are meliorists: they want to make the world a better place, but this often makes
them subscribe to theories that people can be easily changed by the environment.
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SCIENTIST | CHILD
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ARE SCIENTISTS BIASED???
EXAMPLES OF INTENSELY CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES DEALT WITH IN THIS
COURSE:
(1) RACE AND IQ (CH. 10)
(2) GENETIC INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE (CH. 4 AND CH. 10)
(2) SEX DIFFERENCES (CH. 15)
(3) EFFECTS OF DAY CARE (CH. 12)
ISSUES in the HISTORY OF CHILDHOOD:
(1) THE STATE VERSUS THE FAMILY AS AGENT OF SOCIALIZATION:
SOCIALIZATION BY THE STATE:
SPARTA: CHILDREN TAKEN AWAY FROM PARENTS IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD;
SOCIALIZATION FOR CONFORMITY, SOCIAL COHESION, ALTRUISM,
MILITARY PROWESS
NAZI GERMANY: NAZIFICATION OF SCHOOLS, HITLER YOUTH;
SOCIALIZATION AS IN SPARTA
SOVIET UNION: COMMUNIST CONTROL OF SCHOOLS; SOCIALIZATION
FOR CONFORMITY; SEE CHAPTER 16.
(2) CHANGES IN THE IMPORTANCE OF LOVE TOWARD CHILDREN AND
BETWEEN SPOUSES
PURITANISM: ORIGINAL SIN AND AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING
LOVE AS THE BASIS OF MARRIAGE BEGINNING IN THE MIDDLE AGES
THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT
CONTEMPORARY EMPHASIS ON LOVE
(3) CHANGES IN PARENTAL INVESTMENT IN CHILDREN
CHILDREN COST MORE TO REAR SINCE EDUCATION HAS BECOME
CRITICIAL.
PURITANS AND EDUCATION
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: BEGINNING IN 19TH CENTURY, FEWER
CHILDREN, MORE EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT OF ADOLESCENCE AND PROLONGED CHILDHOOD
(4) CHANGES IN SOCIETAL INVESTMENT IN CHILDREN
RISE OF CHILDREN'S SERVICES, FROM MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES TO
RENAISSANCE FOUNDLING HOMES TO MODERN WELFARE
PROGRAMS SUCH AS AID FOR FAMILIES WITH DEPENDENT
CHILDREN
(5) CHANGES IN SINGLE PARENTING, TEENAGE PARENTING, DIVORCE,
RECONSTITUTED FAMILIES, ETC. Single parenting and divorce were
extremely rare in Western societies until the mid-20th century.
(6) CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY: Computers, the internet, and the media revolution.
Children are exposed to very sophisticated media messages related to aggression,
sexuality, gender, ethnicity, etc. Depending on adult or societal control, children
are able to follow their own interests by surfing the net, watching TV, going to
movies, etc., but they are also passive recipients of at least some cultural
messages coming from these sources.
ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
Developmental theories take broad positions on how development works. The
following 7 questions are answered differently by different developmental
theories. Following a discussion of these questions, we will discuss how
cognitive developmental theory and social learning theory stand on these
issues.
1.) IS NATURE OR NURTURE THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF DEVELOPMENT? OR IS THERE AN INTERACTION BETWEEN NATURE AND NURTURE?
HISTORICAL SHIFTS IN THE NATURE/NURTURE ZEITGEIST:
1960-1980: NURTURE DOMINATED.
SINCE 1980, MORE EMPHASIS ON NATURE, BUT A GREAT DEAL OF
CONTROVERSY.
MOST PSYCHOLOGISTS ACCEPT AN INTERACTIVE MODEL: BOTH ARE IMPORTANT
ZEITGEIST = SPIRIT OF THE TIMES
2.) IS DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE QUANTITATIVE OR ARE THERE
QUALITATIVE CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENT?
QUANTITATIVE CHANGE: A MEASURABLE CHANGE OF AMOUNT (E.G.,
CHANGES IN HEIGHT, OR CHANGES IN LEARNING)
ASSOCIATED WITH NON-STAGE THEORIES
QUALITATIVE CHANGE: A CHANGE OF TYPE (E.G., THE CHANGE FROM A
CATERPILLAR TO A BUTTERFLY)
ASSOCIATED WITH STAGE THEORIES
3.) IS DEVELOPMENT SMOOTH OR IS IT STEP-LIKE?
DEVELOPMENT IS SMOOTH IF THE RATE OF CHANGE IS CONSTANT
DEVELOPMENT IS STEP-LIKE IF THERE ARE ABRUPT CHANGES
IN DEVELOPMENT
4.) IS THE THEORY CONCERNED WITH NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT OR
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES?
NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT: THE UNIVERSAL COMMONALITIES OF
CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT (E.G., WALKING, TALKING, STAGES);
OFTEN VIEWED AS RESULTING FROM BIOLOGICAL UNIVERSALS (E.G.,
ARNOLD GESELL);
IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT: DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
SOURCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CAN BE NATURE AND/OR
NURTURE;
ALL POLITICIZED CONTROVERSY IN PSYCHOLOGY INVOLVES INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
5.) IS THE CHILD AN ACTIVE PARTICIPANT IN ITS DEVELOPMENT, OR
DOES HE PASSIVELY RECIEVE INFLUENCES FROM OUTSIDE?
PASSIVE CHILD VS ACTIVE CHILD VS TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF CHILD
PASSIVE: E --> C CHILD PASSIVELY INFLUENCED BY ENVIRONMENTAL
FORCES;
EXAMPLE: REINFORCEMENT IN CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM)
ACTIVE: C --> E CHILD ACTIVELY APPROACHES, EXPLORES, OR INFLUENCES
ENVIRONMENT; EXAMPLE: A CURIOUS CHILD EXPLORES A NEW TOY
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL: C--> E--> C--> E--> C
CHILD INFLUENCES ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCES
CHILD; LIKE A CONVERSATION.
EXAMPLE: PREMATURE CHILD IS EXTREMELY IRRITABLE; THIS MAKES
CAREGIVING DIFFICULT AND RESULTS IN FRUSTRATED PARENT; PARENT
MORE LIKELY TO ABUSE CHILD)
NO ONE MODEL IS CORRECT. DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES ARE BETTER DESCRIBED BY DIFFERENT MODELS.
THIS IS THE CASE WITH ALL OF THESE ISSUES.
6.) IS THE CHILD MOTIVATED INTRINSICALLY OR EXTRINSICALLY?
INTRINSIC: DOING THINGS FOR THEIR OWN SAKE
E.G., STUDYING BECAUSE YOU'RE INTERESTED;
EXTRINSIC: DOING THINGS IN ORDER TO GAIN REWARDS OR AVOID
PUNISHMENTS;
E.G., STUDYING TO AVOID PUNISHMENT
7.) IS EARLY EXPERIENCE IMPORTANT FOR LATER DEVELOPMENT?
PLASTICITY: THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE CHILD CAN BE INFLUENCED BY
THE ENVIRONMENT
EARLY EXPERIENCE IS IMPORTANT (LOCKE, FREUD, ETHOLOGISTS):
HIGH
PLASTICITY
LOW______________________________________
AGE
LATER EXPERIENCE IS IMPORTANT (ALBERT BANDURA):
HIGH
PLASTICITY
LOW______________________________________
AGE
EXPERIENCE NOT IMPORTANT: (ARNOLD GESELL)
HIGH
PLASTICITY
LOW_____________________________________
AGE
MAJOR CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES, I
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY (JEAN PIAGET)
1.) DEVELOPMENT THE RESULT OF QUALITATIVE CHANGES IN THE
STRUCTURE OF CHILDREN'S THINKING.
2.) COGNITIVE STRUCTURE = AN INTERRELATED SYSTEM OF KNOWLEDGE THAT GUIDES BEHAVIOR
EXAMPLE: SCHEME = A COGNITIVE STRUCTURE OF INFANCY;
A SCHEME CONSISTS OF SKILLED, FLEXIBLE ACTION PATTERNS THROUGH WHICH CHILD UNDERSTANDS THE WORLD;
BALL SCHEME INCLUDES WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH A BALL, ETC.;
SCHEME OF BALL CHANGES OVER DEVELOPMENT IN A
QUALITATIVE MANNER
3.) FUNCTIONS: INNATE BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES UNDERLYING COGNITION
a.) ORGANIZATION: THE INNATE NEED TO MAKE SENSE OF WORLD AND
INTEGRATE NEW INFORMATION WITH OLD
b.) ASSIMILATION: INTERPRETING NEW EXPERIENCES IN TERMS OF
EXISTING COGNITIVE STRUCTURES
c.) ACCOMMODATION: CHANGING EXISTING COGNITIVE STRUCTURES
TO FIT WITH NEW EXPERIENCES
4.) CONSTRUCTIVISM: CHILDREN CREATE THEIR OWN WORLDS;
INTERPRET WORLD AS FUNCTION OF THEIR STAGE
5.) METHOD: CLINICAL METHOD: A SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
AIMED AT GETTING AT HOW THE CHILD IS THINKING
6.) CRITERIA FOR A STAGE ACCORDING TO PIAGET:
a.) QUALITATIVE CHANGE
b.) STEP-LIKE DEVELOPMENT
c.) UNIVERSAL
d.) INVARIANT SEQUENCE
STANDING OF CDT ON THE 7 DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
1.) NATURE-NURTURE: INTERACTION BETWEEN CHILD AND
ENVIRONMENT;
FUNCTIONS AND REFLEXES (SUCKING, GRASPING) ARE INNATE,
BUT DEVELOPMENT OCCURS BECAUSE THE CHILD CONSTANTLY MUST
ACCOMMODATE TO NEW ENVIRONMENTS
2. DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS QUALITATIVE
3) CHANGE IS ABRUPT RATHER THAN SMOOTH;
4.) CDT INTERESTED IN NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT: KIDS ARE
BASICALLY ALIKE THE WORLD OVER; they all go through the same stages,
etc.
5.) ACTIVE CHILD: CHILD IS INNATELY CURIOUS AND EXPLORATORY
6.) MOTIVATION IS INTRINSIC; CHILD ENJOYS FIGURING OUT THE
WORLD
7.) EARLY VS LATER EXPERIENCE IS NOT AN ISSUE FOR CDT;
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT DEPENDS ON THE STAGE THE CHILD IS IN
RATHER THAN AGE OF THE CHILD. CHILDREN RESPOND TO THE
ENVIRONMENT AT ALL AGES, AND HOW THEY RESPOND DEPENDS ON
WHAT STAGE THEY ARE IN.
CDT EMPHASIZES READINESS: CHILDREN CAN'T BENEFIT FROM AN
ENVIRONMENT UNLESS THEY ARE READY FOR IT. 4-YEAR-OLDS WOULD
NOT BENEFIT FROM INSTRUCTION IN ALGEBRA.
SOCIAL LEARNING (SOCIAL COGNITIVE) THEORY:
(ALBERT BANDURA)
CHILDREN LEARN HOW THE WORLD WORKS BY
1.) DIRECT REWARD AND PUNISHMENT (OPERANT AND RESPONDENT
CONDITIONING)
2.) VERBAL INSTRUCTIONS
3.) OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING = LEARNING IN WHICH OBSERVER'S
BEHAVIOR IS CHANGED AS A RESULT OF OBSERVING MODEL.
VICARIOUS CONSEQUENCES: CONSEQUENCES OF A MODEL'S BEHAVIOR
THAT AFFECTS THE OBSERVER (VICARIOUS REWARD AND VICARIOUS
PUNISHMENT
ACQUISITION/PERFORMANCE DISTINCTION:
1.) CHILDREN EXPOSED TO AGGRESSIVE MODELS WHO WERE REWARDED
OR PUNISHED FOR THEIR BEHAVIOR;
2.) CHILDREN IMITATED REWARDED AGGRESSION BUT NOT PUNISHED
AGGRESSION;
3.) CHILDREN WERE LATER ABLE TO IMITATE THE PUNISHED
BEHAVIORS IF REWARDED TO DO SO;
CONCLUSION: ACQUISITION IS INDEPENDENT OF PERFORMANCE
METHOD: LABORATORY ANALOG EXPERIMENT; FIND ANALOG OF REAL
WORLD BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE STUDIED IN THE LABORATORY
CRITIQUE: IS ANALOG EXPERIMENT ECOLOGICALLY VALID? I.E., CAN ONE EXTRAPOLATE RESULTS OBTAINED IN LABORATORY TO REAL WORLD; E. G., AGGRESSION
Social Learning and Cognition: Processes involved in Social Learning
Bandura changed learning theory by combining it with aspects of cognitive psychology. This can be seen in the four processes Bandura proposes as relevant to social learning: Attention, Retention, Production, and Motivation. All of these undergo age changes; they all develop. Therefore, age affects social learning.
Attention: Children gradually improve in their ability to pay attention. This affects social learning because they pay better attention to models. One couldn't lecture to kindergartners and expect them to pay attention.
Retention: Children gradually improve their ability to remember things they have seen or experienced. This affects social learning because children are better able to remember what models did.
Production: Children's abilities gradually improve. This means that they are able to produce more of what they see and try to imitate. Obviously, young children can't imitate behaviors that they are physically unable to reproduce any more than I can dunk a basketball just by watching someone else do it.
Motivation: Motivation changes as children get older. For example, older children are probably more concerned about how others see them and more motivated to be socially acceptable. This might affect what types of models they would pay special attention to. A teenager might pay special attention to the behavior of other kids who are seen as cool.
STANDING OF SLT THEORY ON DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
1.) NATURE vs. NURTURE: SLT PROPOSESALL INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ARE DUE TO DIFFERENT LEARNING CONTINGENCIES; i.e., NURTURE
2.) DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS QUANTITATIVE OLDER CHILDREN HAVE
LEARNED MORE THAN YOUNGER CHILDREN
3. DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IS SMOOTH, NOT ABRUPT
4.) EMPHASIS ON IDIOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT
5.) "MODERATELY" ACTIVE CHILD: BANDURA'S RECIPROCAL
DETERMINISM AMONG BEHAVIOR (RESPONSES), ENVIRONMENT
(REINFORCEMENTS, PUNISHMENTS), AND PERSON (GOALS, PLANS,
PERSONALITY, BELIEFS)
(CLASSICAL BEHAVIORISM VIEWED THE CHILD AS PASSIVE);
6.) MOTIVATION IS EXTRINSIC; CHILD LEARNS IN ORDER TO GET REWARDS
OR AVOID PUNISHMENT;
7.) EARLY EXPERIENCE IS NOT ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT; OPTIMISTIC
ABOUT EFFECTS OF LEARNING AT ALL POINTS IN THE LIFESPAN
MAJOR CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES, III
CLASSICAL ETHOLOGICAL THEORY: (KONRAD LORENZ, NIKO TINBERGEN)
IMMEDIATE (PROXIMATE) CAUSES OF BEHAVIOR (E. G., HOW HORMONES
AND GENES INFLUENCE THE STRUCTURE OF EAGLE'S CLAW)
EVOLUTIONARY (ULTIMATE) CAUSE OF BEHAVIOR: WHAT FUNCTION DOES THE TRAIT HAVE FOR THE ANIMAL? EAGLES' CLAWS HAVE BEEN DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION TO FACILITATE PREDATION.
BEHAVIOR AS AN ADAPTATION
ADAPTATION = A BEHAVIOR OR MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURE DESIGNED BY NATURAL SELECTION IN ORDER TO PERFORM A PARTICULAR FUNCTION
EXAMPLE: ATTACHMENT IS A BEHAVIORAL SYSTEM DESIGNED BY
NATURAL SELECTION TO KEEP THE BABY CLOSE TO ITS MOTHER
MUCH OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR IS INSTINCTIVE
INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR = :
1.) BEHAVIOR OCCURS IN ALL MEMBERS OF SPECIES
(= SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIOR)
2.) NO LEARNING REQUIRED; OFTEN BEHAVIOR CAN DEVELOP
WITHOUT ANIMAL EVER EXPERIENCING OTHER MEMBERS
OF THE SPECIES
3.) STEREOTYPED BEHAVIOR
Example: Spider webs. All spiders of a certain species are able to spin their particular type
of web. They don't learn this by classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social
learning. Young spiders may never see other members of the same species, but they are
able to spin a web as soon as necessary when they reach the appropriate developmental
stage. Their webs all look basically alike; they are stereotyped.
FIXED OR MODAL ACTION PATTERN (FAP): A SEQUENCE OF BEHAVIORS
ELICITED BY A SPECIFIC STIMULUS;
E.G. AGGRESSION IN FIGHTING FISH. When the fighting fish sees the red belly of
another male during breeding season while he is defending his territory, he will attack in a
stereotyped manner. There are a great many such examples, ranging from mating rituals to
parenting behaviors.
INNATE RELEASING MECHANISM (IRM):
AN IRM IS A MECHANISM THAT TRIGGERS AN INNATE SEQUENCE OR
PATTERN OF BEHAVIOR AS A RESULT OF PERCEIVING A STIMULUS;
E.G., RED BELLY OF ANOTHER MALE TRIGGERS AGGRESSION IN FIGHTING
FISH.
IF IRM PRESENT, THEN FAP WILL BE EMITTED. THE IRM IS A
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISM IN THE FISH. IT RESPONDS TO A CERTAIN
STIMULUS, SUCH AS THE RED BELLY OF ANOTHER MALE, AND TRIGGERS A
PARTICULAR BEHAVIORAL SEQUENCE, IN THIS CASE, AGGRESSION.
APPLICATION TO HUMANS:
1.) REFLEXES (E. G., SUCKING AS A FAP);
2.) SOCIAL SIGNALING AS AN IRM (E. G., BABY'S SMILING ELICITS SOCIAL
PLAY FROM MOTHER; BABY'S CRYING ELICITS CAREGIVING)
METHODOLOGY: NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION; STRONGLY OPPOSED
TO LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS UNTIL BASIC NATURALISTIC
OBSERVATION COMPLETED
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS OF ETHOLOGY:
1.) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
2.) THINK OF CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR AS INCLUDING A SET OF BIOLOGICAL
ADAPTATIONS FOR SURVIVAL OVER EVOLUTIONARY TIME
3.) STUDY BEHAVIORS THAT ALSO OCCUR IN ANIMALS (DOMINANCE,
AGGRESSION, ATTACHMENT);
4. SENSITIVE PERIOD IDEA.
SENSITIVE PERIOD: PERIOD IN DEVELOPMENT WHEN
ORGANISM IS MOST OPEN TO ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES (I. E., HAS GREATEST PLASTICITY)
HIGH
PLASTICITY
LOW ______________________________
AGE
CRITICAL PERIOD: SAME AS SENSITIVE PERIOD, BUT THE
TIME FRAME IS SHARPLY RESTRICTED
HIGH
PLASTICITY
LOW ______________________________
AGE
EXAMPLES OF SENSITIVE PERIODS:
IMPRINTING IN DUCKS; ATTACHMENT IN HUMANS;
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON IQ(?)
EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS (= chemicals that cause birth defects). ADULTS CAN DRINK MODERATELY WITHOUT MAJOR EFFECTS ON THE BRAIN, BUT THE SAME LEVEL OF ALCOHOL GIVEN TO A DEVELOPING FETUS HAS DISASTROUS EFFECTS ON THE CHILD.
STANDING OF CLASSICAL ETHOLOGICAL THEORY ON DEVELOPMENTAL
ISSUES
1.) NATURE IS IMPORTANT: BEHAVIOR HAS STRONG GENETIC BASIS;
HOWEVER, ENVIRONMENT IS IMPORTANT DURING SENSITIVE
PERIODS
7.) EARLY EXPERIENCE OFTEN MORE IMPORTANT THAN LATER EXPERIENCE BECAUSE OF SENSITIVE PERIODS
